General Actions:
Tournament | Round | Opponent | Judge | Cites | Round Report | Open Source | Edit/Delete |
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Glenbooks | 1 | Greenhill MW | Donna Carrasco |
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IDCA JV State | 2 | GBN LL | Darrell George |
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IDCA JV State | 4 | GBN DF | Nick Locke |
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Midwest | 1 | Cedar Rapids Washington KL | Abby Koshollek |
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U Mich | 1 | The Devil | Jesus H Christ |
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Valley | 1 | Des Moines Roosevelt AA |
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Wake Forest | 3 | Alpharetta |
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Tournament | Round | Report |
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Midwest | 1 | Opponent: Cedar Rapids Washington KL | Judge: Abby Koshollek New aff- coffee with poverty and fem adv |
U Mich | 1 | Opponent: The Devil | Judge: Jesus H Christ It'll be this 1ac unless we say something different |
To modify or delete round reports, edit the associated round.
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1ACTournament: Wake Forest | Round: 3 | Opponent: Alpharetta | Judge: Contention 1 is Hegemony The downward spiral the United States has taken was anything but inevitable. Washington has SAN CRISTOBAL DE LAS CASAS, Mexico — President Xi Jinping of China arrived in In the decade spanning 2000 to 2010, trade between China and Latin America as With both the U.S. and China making gains in the regionin different In the past, political sensitivities concerning U.S. involvement in¶ the Observers say Mexican state oil company Pemex's decision to significantly boost oil exports to China Continuing to delay the Hydrocarbon Agreement hinders the possibilities of the TBHA and future energycooperation At its core, the agreement seeks to set up legal guidelines for companies to Hydrocarbon Agreement sets a concrete framework for further Environmental Cooperation The United States and Mexico jointly announced their intention to negotiate a transboundary hydrocarbons agreement Could joint green-energy development help improve relations between the United States and Mexico Mexico became a champion of climate concerns during the administrationof President Felipe Calderón (2006 Expanding trade is not merely compatible with high standards of environmental quality but can lead If the full range of renewable technologies were to be deployed, levels of heat It also causes poverty, social tensions, weak politics, and a laundry list of environmental issues. Environmental impacts come first Third, all systems of ethical beliefs are hypotheses about how human beings can live Contention 3 is PEMEX Progress, but can it last? A snapshot of Mexico’s oil sector Mexico has Mexican Energy is key to global economic stability A story receiving more attention in the American media than Iraq these days is the Less intuitive is how periods of economic decline may increase the likelihood of external conflict But, for the time being, PEMEX is already on the move. Deepwater Exploration and Production: The Keys to Deeper Reform The 2008 Energy Reform initiated the | 9/7/13 |
1AC ValleyTournament: Valley | Round: 1 | Opponent: Des Moines Roosevelt AA | Judge: The United States federal government should enact the Outer Continental Shelf Transboundary Hydrocarbon Agreements Authorization Act with Mexico.Contention ~1~ is Hegemony US Hegemony is necessary to prevent global nuclear warfareBrooks et al ’13 A loss of US heg leads to violence and chaosKagan 12 (Robert – senior fellow of foreign policy at the Center on the United States and Europe, America Has Made the World Freer, Safer and Wealthier, p. http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2012/0314_us_power_kagan.aspx-http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2012/0314_us_power_kagan.aspx) Any turns are inevitable – The US will down fight for hegemonyMearsheimer 11 John J. Mearsheimer, the "R. Wendell Harrison Distinguished Service Professor of Political Science at the University of Chicago" Jan/Feb 2011 "Imperial By Design" http://mearsheimer.uchicago.edu/pdfs/A0059.pdf The downward spiral the United States has taken was anything but inevitable. Washington has China is expanding its Latin American Sphere of Influence to disenfranchise Taiwan and warming up to Mexico’s energy sector – now is key for US actionMalkin 13 (Elisabeth Malkin, New York Times writer. "Chinese President Makes Bridge-Building Trip to Mexico" June 4, 2013. www.nytimes.com/2013/06/05/world/americas/xi-makes-bridge-building-trip-to-mexico.html?_r=0) SAN CRISTOBAL DE LAS CASAS, Mexico — President Xi Jinping of China arrived in Competition over natural resources means influence is zero-sumKurlantzick 2007 (Joshua, Fellow for Southeast Asia at the Council on Foreign Relations, "China Walks Softly But Carries a Big Checkbook, August 6, U.S. News 26 World Report.) Myanmar provides an early glimpse of what China is becoming. After years focusing on Mexico is key to China’s Latin America strategyKnowland 13 (Don Knowland, writer for WSWS. "China’s President Visits Mexico and Central America Seeking Economic Ties." World Socialist Website 10 June 2013. http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2013/06/10/xime-j10.html-http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2013/06/10/xime-j10.html) In the decade spanning 2000 to 2010, trade between China and Latin America as Chinese influence in Latin America is a litmus test for power globally – undermines HegemonyCerna 11 With both the U.S. and China making gains in the regionin different Independently, Chinese influence in Latin America causes Taiwan warFergusson 12Robbie, Researcher at Royal Society for the Arts, Featured Contributor at International Business Times, Former Conference 26 Research Assistant at Security Watch, Former Researcher at University College London, Master of Science, China in the International Arena, The University of Glasgow, "The Chinese Challenge to the Monroe Doctrine," http://www.e-ir.info/2012/07/23/does-chinese-growth-in-latin-america-threaten-american-interests/ Taiwan escalates and goes nuclearLowther 3/16 William, Taipei Times, citing a report by the Center for Strategic and International Studies, 3/16/13, "Taiwan could spark nuclear war: report," http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2013/03/16/2003557211-http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2013/03/16/2003557211 ====Absent the plan, oil spills are inevitable==== ====The plan catalyzes necessary environmental protection in the Gulf==== Resiliency does not apply to Gulf Coast ecosystems—another spill will destroy marine biodiversityCraig 11 (Robin Kundis Craig, Attorneys’ Title Professor of Law and Associate Dean for Environmental Programs, Florida State University College of Law, Tallahassee, Florida, 12/20/11 "Legal Remedies for Deep Marine Oil Spills and Long-Term Ecological Resilience: A Match Made in Hell" http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1906839-http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1906839) The Gulf is a key ocean biodiversity hotspotBrenner 8 – Jorge Brenner, March 14th, 2008, "Guarding the Gulf of Mexico’s valuable resources" www.scidev.net/en/opinions/guarding-the-gulf-of-mexico-s-valuable-resources.html Multilateral integrated ocean management’s key to solve global system collapse—-it’s the foundation of all environmental resilienceYves Henocque 10, Theme Leader on Nature 26 Society at the French Institute for the Development of the Sea, IFREMER, 2010, "TOWARD THE GLOBAL GOVERNANCE OF COAST AND OCEAN SOCIALECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS," http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00035/14658/11960.pdf-http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00035/14658/11960.pdf ====Extinction==== No resiliency in the GulfKundis 11 – Robin Kundis Craig, Attorneys’ Title Professor of Law and Associate Dean for Environmental Programs, Florida State University College of Law, Tallahassee, Florida, December 20th, 2011, "Legal Remedies for Deep Marine Oil Spills and Long-Term Ecological Resilience: A Match Made in Hell," lawreview.byu.edu/articles/1326405133_03craig.fin.pdf Delays are hurting the possibility of energy cooperation through TBAMartin, Wood,May 3rd, 2013(Jeremy Martin— a frequent commentator and writer on Latin American and energy issues speaking at international conferences and appearing in both print and broadcast media; Duncan Wood— the Director of the Mexico Institute at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars; "U.S. Should Act Quickly on Transboundary Hydrocarbon Agreement With Mexico"; http://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/12923/u-s-should-act-quickly-on-transboundary-hydrocarbon-agreement-with-mexico-http://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/12923/u-s-should-act-quickly-on-transboundary-hydrocarbon-agreement-with-mexico) At its core, the agreement seeks to set up legal guidelines for companies to TBA key for future environmental cooperationSimmons, April 30th 2013(Daniel Simmons, Director of Regulatory and State Affairs, Institute for Energy Research; "U.S.-Mexico Transboundary Hydrocarbons Agreement: A Rare Victory for Oil and Gas in the Obama Era"; MasterResource; http://www.masterresource.org/2013/04/u-s-mexico-transboundary-hydrocarbons-agreement/-http://www.masterresource.org/2013/04/u-s-mexico-transboundary-hydrocarbons-agreement/) The United States and Mexico jointly announced their intention to negotiate a transboundary hydrocarbons agreement Contention ~3~ is PEMEX PEMEX is declining - Reforms are criticalKerry et al. 12 Progress, but can it last? A snapshot of Mexico’s oil sector Mexico has Planned reforms are insufficient – deep water drilling and technical assistance are neededEconomist 8/10 (The Economist magazine. "Unfixable Pemex" August 10, 2013. www.economist.com/news/business/21583253-even-if-government-plucks-up-courage-reform-it-pemex-will-be-hard-fix-unfixable) A JAR of crude oil, not much bigger than one of baby food, PEMEX is the most important company in Mexico – decline takes down the whole economy. Plan is keyKrauss and Malkin 10 Clifford Kraus and Elisabeth Malkin, Krauss is a national business correspondent based in Houston covering energy for the NYT, Malkin covers environmental and energy news especially for Mexico for the NYT, March 8, 2010, "Mexico Oil Politics Keeps Riches Just Out of Reach", http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/09/business/global/09pemex.html?pagewanted=all26_r=0-http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/09/business/global/09pemex.html?pagewanted=all26_r=0. Mexican Energy is key to global economic stabilityMoran 9 Michael Moran, vice president and executive editor of Roubini Global Economics and RGE’s senior expert on geostrategic and political risk. From 2005-2009, Michael served as executive editor of CFR.org,. "Six Crises, 2009: A Half-Dozen Ways Geopolitics Could Upset Global Recovery". Roubini Global Economics Monitor. July 31, 2009. http://fbkfinanzwirtschaft.wordpress.com/2009/08/07/six-crises-2009-a-half-dozen-ways-geopolitics-could-upset-global-recovery/ A story receiving more attention in the American media than Iraq these days is the Economic decline causes war and miscalculationRoyal 10 — Jedidiah Royal, Director of Cooperative Threat Reduction at the U.S. Department of Defense, M.Phil. Candidate at the University of New South Wales, 2010 ("Economic Integration, Economic Signalling and the Problem of Economic Crises," Economics of War and Peace: Economic, Legal and Political Perspectives, Edited by Ben Goldsmith and Jurgen Brauer, Published by Emerald Group Publishing, ISBN 0857240048, p. 213-215) Less intuitive is how periods of economic decline may increase the likelihood of external conflict TBA will put pressure on Mexico to reform PEMEX – cooperation spills over to future agreementsMelgar 12 (Lourdes Melgar, director of the Center for Sustainability and Business at EGADE Business School of the Tecnológico de Monterrey. "The Future of PEMEX", Americas Quarterly, 2012, http://www.americasquarterly.org/node/3781) But, for the time being, PEMEX is already on the move. Deepwater Foreign Investment and coop is key to PEMEX growthMelgar 12 (Lourdes, director of the Center for Sustainability and Business at EGADE Business School of the Tecnológico de Monterrey, Independent Energy Consultant at Independent Consultant, studied at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Mount Holyoke College, 2012, "The Future of PEMEX", Americas Quarterly, http://www.americasquarterly.org/node/3781-http://www.americasquarterly.org/node/3781, Accessed: 6/25/13, LPS.) Exploration and Production: The Keys to Deeper Reform The 2008 Energy Reform initiated the | 9/29/13 |
Glenbrooks NADB 1acTournament: Glenbooks | Round: 1 | Opponent: Greenhill MW | Judge: Donna Carrasco Plan TextPlan: The United States federal government should substantially increase its infrastructure investment toward Mexico through the North American Development Bank.Contention 1: EconomyInfrastructure needed now—border congestion is undermining economic trade—recent reports proveEFT, 10/3/13(EFT—the global leader in business intelligence and C-level networking for the transport, logistics and supply chain industry; "Congestion at the Border"; Eye for Transport; http://www.eft.com/freight-transport/congestion-border-http://www.eft.com/freight-transport/congestion-border) Congestion at the border undermines important trade flows between the US and Mexico – infrastructure is key for both economiesLee and Wilson 12 (Erik, Associate Director at the North American Center for Transborder Studies (NACTS) at Arizona State University, and Chris, Associate at the Mexico Institute of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. He develops the Institute’s research and programming on regional economic integration and U.S.-Mexico border affairs. "Whole Nations Waiting" Site Selection Magazine, July 2012. www.siteselection.com/issues/2012/jul/us-mex-border.cfm) Commerce between the United States and Mexico is one of the great — yet underappreciated Plan is key to resolve congestion and boost border infrastructure for both the US and MexicoWilson 12 (Christopher Wilson, associate at the Mexico Institute of teh Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. "U.S. Competitiveness: The Mexican Connection" 2012. www.issues.org/28.4/p_wilson.html) Policy for a competitive region¶ The border. With an integrated regional manufacturing sector Plan creates new funding which serves as a catalyst for more investmentMosqueda, Bachelor’s in journalism, 12 ~Priscila, 7-18-12, Texas Observer, "Sister Organizations Continue to Improve Infrastructure Along Border: Binational Institutions Fund Projects to Encourage Economic Growth," http://www.texasobserver.org/sister-organizations-continue-to-improve-infrastructure-along-border/, accessed 6-26-13~ Projects are partially funded by the Bank, with local, state and federal governments Infrastructure constraints create business uncertainty – it’s reverse causalDonohue and Zozaya 11 (Thomas Donohue, President and CEO of the US Chamber of Commerce, José Zozaya President American Chamber of Commerce of Mexico, 2011, "Steps to a 21st Century U.S.-Mexico Border A U.S. Chamber of Commerce Border Report" online @ http://www.uschamber.com/sites/default/files/reports/2011_us_mexico_report.pdf Businesses rely on just-in-time inventory management and depend on predictability and Loss of confidence creates a negative feedback cycle annihilating the economyRubin et al 4 – PhD Economics, Senior Fellow of the Brookings Institute and Chief Global Economist at Decision Economics inc. (Robert E. Rubin, Chairman of Citigroup Financial, Peter R. Roszag, Senior Fellow, Brookings Institute, and Allen Sinai, Decision Economics, "Sustained Budget Deficits: The Risks of Financial and Fiscal Disarray" Paper presented The Andrew Brimmer Policy Forum, "National Economic and Financial Policies for Growth and Stability," Sunday, 1/4/04) Economic growth is vital to effectively confront every global problem—additional resources are needed – it’s reverse casualSilk 93 — Leonard Silk, Distinguished Professor of Economics at Pace University, Senior Research Fellow at the Ralph Bunche Institute on the United Nations at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York, and former Economics Columnist with the New York Times, 1993 ("Dangers of Slow Growth," Foreign Affairs, Available Online to Subscribing Institutions via Lexis-Nexis) Infrastructure is key to long-term Mexican growthAschauer 98 (David Alan Aschauer, Elmer W. Campbell Professor of Economics at Bates College. "The Role of Public Infrastructure Capital in Mexican Economic Growth" 1998. http://www.economiamexicana.cide.edu/num_anteriores/VII-1/02_ASCHAUER_47-78.pdf) VP A number of tentative conclusions pertinent to Mexican infrastructure policy can be drawn from the That causes two scenarios for crisis 1st - Mexican economy is vital to the US – trade, exports, jobs, fundamentalsSarukhan, 12 (Arturo, Ambassador of Mexico to the United States, "Mexico ’Critically Important’ to US Economy," Wilson Center, 2/24/12, video testimony, http://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/mexico-E28098critically-importantE28099-to-us-economy, Tashma) It’s an incredibly strong relationship, for starters, because a lot of people sometimes US is key to the global economyLagarde 13 (Christine Lagarde, Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund. "Strong U.S. Economy, Strong Global Economy—Two Sides of Same Coin" September 19, 2013. www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2013/NEW091913A.htm) In a world of increasing economic interconnections, the United States’s stake in the global Economic crisis causes global nuclear war and terrorismHarris 26 Burrows 9(Mathew, PhD European History @ Cambridge, counselor of the U.S. National Intelligence Council (NIC) and Jennifer, member of the NIC’s Long Range Analysis Unit "Revisiting the Future: Geopolitical Effects of the Financial Crisis" http://www.ciaonet.org/journals/twq/v32i2/f_0016178_13952.pdf) Studies prove our impactRoyal 10 — Jedidiah Royal, Director of Cooperative Threat Reduction at the U.S. Department of Defense, M.Phil. Candidate at the University of New South Wales, 2010 ("Economic Integration, Economic Signalling and the Problem of Economic Crises," Economics of War and Peace: Economic, Legal and Political Perspectives, Edited by Ben Goldsmith and Jurgen Brauer, Published by Emerald Group Publishing, ISBN 0857240048, p. 213-215) Less intuitive is how periods of economic decline may increase the likelihood of external conflict Creating more economic opportunitieswillbe Mexico’s greatest weapon in the war on drugs, the country’s Mexico drug violence leads to oil shocks and economic collapseMoran 9 (7/31/09, Michael, executive editor and policy analyst, Council on Foreign Relations, "Six Crises, 2009: A Half-Dozen Ways Geopolitics Could Upset Global Recovery," http://fbkfinanzwirtschaft.wordpress.com/2009/08/07/six-crises-2009-a-half-dozen-ways-geopolitics-could-upset-global-recovery/) Energy shocks cause great power nuke warIslam Yasin Qasem 7, a doctoral candidate in the Department of Politics and Social Sciences at the University of Pompeu Fabra (UPF) in Barcelona, MA in International Affairs from Columbia, July 9, 2007, "The Coming Warfare of Oil Shortage," online: http://www.opednews.com/articles/opedne_islam_ya_070709_the_coming_warfare_o.htm Mexican collapse causes U.S. isolationism which guts HegHaddick 8 (Robert, Managing Editor, Small Wars Journal, former U.S. Marine Corps officer, advisor for the State Department and the National Intelligence Council on irregular warfare issues, former Director of Research at the Fremont Group, http://westhawk.blogspot.com/2008/12/now-that-would-change-everything.html-http://westhawk.blogspot.com/2008/12/now-that-would-change-everything.html, MH) Contention 2: ManufacturingThe manufacturing sector is contractingFontevecchia 13 (Agustino Fontevecchia, writer for Forbes, "U.S. Manufacturing Takes The Worst Hit Since June 2009 As Sequester And Slowing Consumption Bite" http://www.forbes.com/sites/afontevecchia/2013/06/03/u-s-manufacturing-takes-the-worst-hit-since-june-2009-as-sequester-and-slowing-consumption-bite/ 6-3-13) Mexican manufacturing low now, economy is stagnatingReuters 13 ("Mexico June Manufacturing growth dips to over 2-year low, Reuters, 7/1/13, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/07/01/mexico-factories-idUSE1N0DX00S20130701-http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/07/01/mexico-factories-idUSE1N0DX00S20130701) Current U.S. manufacturing industry is collapsing due to a lack of competitivenessNash-Hoff 12 (Michele Nash-Hoff, Founder and President at ElectroFab Sales, author of "Can American Manufacturing be Saved? Why we should and how we can"; "American Manufacturing Has Declined More Than Most Experts Have Thought,"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/michele-nashhoff/manufacturing-jobs_b_1382704.html-http://www.huffingtonpost.com/michele-nashhoff/manufacturing-jobs_b_1382704.html) US-Mexican manufacturing is key to US economic competitivenessWilson 11 Aerospace growth and competitiveness are declining – stronger supply chains are keyBernardiniandFitzpatrick13 (Eric Bernardini and David Fitzpatrick, managing directors for AlixPartners, "Pockets of Turbulence" http://www.alixpartners.com/en/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=wi4rab_uA843d26tabid=2085 June 2013) The plan solves- efficient border trade is key to the aerospace sectorChamber of Commerce 11 (United States Chamber of Commerce, "Steps to a 21st Century: U.S.-Mexico Border" http://www.uschamber.com/sites/default/files/reports/2011_us_mexico_report.pdf 11-30-11) Aerospace key to hegemonyLexington Institute 13 The pursuit of hegemony is inevitable, sustainable, and prevents great power warIkenberry, Brooks, and Wohlforth 13 – *Stephen G. Brooks is Associate Professor of Government at Dartmouth College, John Ikenberry is Albert G. Milbank Professor of Politics and International Affairs at Princeton University and Global Eminence Scholar at Kyung Hee University in Seoul, William C. Wohlforth is Daniel Webster Professor of Government at Dartmouth College ("Lean Forward: In Defense of American Engagement", January/February 2013, Foreign Affairs, http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/138468/stephen-g-brooks-g-john-ikenberry-and-william-c-wohlforth/lean-forward) Aerospace’s key to deter China and prevent war over Taiwan.Mosher 6 — Stephen Mosher, President and Director of the Population Research Institute, Taiwan conflict triggers miscalculation — escalates to nuclear war.Lowther 13 — William Lowther, Taipei Times, citing a report by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (William Lowther, 03-16-2013, "Taiwan could spark nuclear war: report," http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2013/03/16/2003557211-http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2013/03/16/2003557211) Taiwan is themost likely potential crisisthat couldtrigger a nuclear warbetween China and the US, SolvencyExpanding the NADBank solves infrastructure development — the plan ensures accountability, private investment, and Mexico says yes.Rodriguez 9 — Raul Rodriguez, serves as the Chairman of the Board of Advisors of the North American Center for Transborder Studies at Arizona State University. He is also the Benson Chair in Banking and Finance and Distinguished Professor at the HEB School of Business and Administration at the University of the Incarnate Word in San Antonio, Texas and the President of RMI, an investment and trade consulting firm in Mexico. He served as CEO and Managing Director of the North American Development Bank (NADBank) until October 2005. Prior to joining the NADBank, he was Executive Director of the Mexican Foreign Trade Bank; the Bank’s Director for Asia; Mexico’s Trade Commissioner in Canada during the NAFTA negotiation; and Secretary of Economic Development for the Mexican border State of Tamaulipas. Mr. Rodriguez participates actively in community affairs at home in San Antonio, Texas, as Chairman of the World Affairs Council; Chairman Elect of The Free Trade Alliance; Mayoral appointee to the Board of Directors of the Port Authority of San Antonio; Chairman Elect and Vice President of the San Antonio - Mexico Friendship Council, among others. He is also a founding member of the Mexican Council on Foreign Relations and a member of the Advisory Council of the Harte Research Institute at Texas A26M University, the North American Forum, the U.S. - Mexico Futures Forum and the Border Trade Advisory Committee of the Texas Transportation Commission. He participated in the Foreign Affairs task force with President Calderon’s transition team in Mexico in October and November 2006 (Raul Rodriguez, The Wilson Center Mexico Institute and El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, June 2009, "The Future of the North American Development Bank", http://wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/RODRIGUEZ20NADBANK.pdf-http://wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/RODRIGUEZ NADBANK.pdf, Accessed 08-21-2013) Many agencies and programs have a bearing on border issues, but the region still | 11/23/13 |
IDCA NADB 1acTournament: IDCA JV State | Round: 2 | Opponent: GBN LL | Judge: Darrell George Plan TextPlan: The United States federal government should substantially increase its infrastructure investment toward Mexico by expanding the North American Development Bank’s mandate to include investment in border infrastructure.EconThe economy is trapped in a cycle of stagnation – collapse is inevitable without manufacturing and jobs growthBoak 2/9/14 Border infrastructure is failing—inefficient ports of entry are eroding our competitivenessTaylor 12/6/13 (Steve Taylor, Rio Grande Guardian, citing Ana Luisa Fajer Flores, director general for North America Affairs in the Mexican Ministry of Foreign Affairs. "Fajer Flores: Border ports of entry simply not efficient enough" December 6, 2013. www.riograndeguardian.com/business_story.asp?story_no=5) BROWNSVILLE, December 6 - An official with the Mexican Ministry of Foreign Affairs said Congestion at the border undermines important trade flows between the US and Mexico – infrastructure is key for both economiesLee and Wilson 12 (Erik, Associate Director at the North American Center for Transborder Studies (NACTS) at Arizona State University, and Chris, Associate at the Mexico Institute of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. He develops the Institute’s research and programming on regional economic integration and U.S.-Mexico border affairs. "Whole Nations Waiting" Site Selection Magazine, July 2012. www.siteselection.com/issues/2012/jul/us-mex-border.cfm) Commerce between the United States and Mexico is one of the great — yet underappreciated Plan is key to resolve congestion and boost border infrastructure for both the US and MexicoWilson 12 (Christopher Wilson, associate at the Mexico Institute of teh Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. "U.S. Competitiveness: The Mexican Connection" 2012. www.issues.org/28.4/p_wilson.html) Policy for a competitive region¶ The border. With an integrated regional manufacturing sector Plan creates new funding which serves as a catalyst for more investmentMosqueda, Bachelor’s in journalism, 12 ~Priscila, 7-18-12, Texas Observer, "Sister Organizations Continue to Improve Infrastructure Along Border: Binational Institutions Fund Projects to Encourage Economic Growth," http://www.texasobserver.org/sister-organizations-continue-to-improve-infrastructure-along-border/, accessed 6-26-13~ Projects are partially funded by the Bank, with local, state and federal governments Infrastructure constraints create business uncertainty – it’s reverse causalDonohue and Zozaya 11 (Thomas Donohue, President and CEO of the US Chamber of Commerce, José Zozaya President American Chamber of Commerce of Mexico, 2011, "Steps to a 21st Century U.S.-Mexico Border A U.S. Chamber of Commerce Border Report" online @ http://www.uschamber.com/sites/default/files/reports/2011_us_mexico_report.pdf Businesses rely on just-in-time inventory management and depend on predictability and Loss of confidence creates a negative feedback cycle annihilating the economyRubin et al 4 – PhD Economics, Senior Fellow of the Brookings Institute and Chief Global Economist at Decision Economics inc. (Robert E. Rubin, Chairman of Citigroup Financial, Peter R. Roszag, Senior Fellow, Brookings Institute, and Allen Sinai, Decision Economics, "Sustained Budget Deficits: The Risks of Financial and Fiscal Disarray" Paper presented The Andrew Brimmer Policy Forum, "National Economic and Financial Policies for Growth and Stability," Sunday, 1/4/04) Economic growth is vital to effectively confront every global problem—additional resources are needed – it’s reverse casualSilk 93 — Leonard Silk, Distinguished Professor of Economics at Pace University, Senior Research Fellow at the Ralph Bunche Institute on the United Nations at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York, and former Economics Columnist with the New York Times, 1993 ("Dangers of Slow Growth," Foreign Affairs, Available Online to Subscribing Institutions via Lexis-Nexis) Infrastructure is key to long-term Mexican growthAschauer 98 (David Alan Aschauer, Elmer W. Campbell Professor of Economics at Bates College. "The Role of Public Infrastructure Capital in Mexican Economic Growth" 1998. http://www.economiamexicana.cide.edu/num_anteriores/VII-1/02_ASCHAUER_47-78.pdf) VP A number of tentative conclusions pertinent to Mexican infrastructure policy can be drawn from the Mexican economy is vital to the US – trade, exports, jobs, fundamentalsSarukhan, 12 (Arturo, Ambassador of Mexico to the United States, "Mexico ’Critically Important’ to US Economy," Wilson Center, 2/24/12, video testimony, http://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/mexico-E28098critically-importantE28099-to-us-economy, Tashma) It’s an incredibly strong relationship, for starters, because a lot of people sometimes US is key to the global economyLagarde 13 (Christine Lagarde, Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund. "Strong U.S. Economy, Strong Global Economy—Two Sides of Same Coin" September 19, 2013. www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2013/NEW091913A.htm) In a world of increasing economic interconnections, the United States’s stake in the global Economic decline leads to warRoyal 10 — Jedidiah Royal, Director of Cooperative Threat Reduction at the U.S. Department of Defense, M.Phil. Candidate at the University of New South Wales, 2010 ("Economic Integration, Economic Signalling and the Problem of Economic Crises," Economics of War and Peace: Economic, Legal and Political Perspectives, Edited by Ben Goldsmith and Jurgen Brauer, Published by Emerald Group Publishing, ISBN 0857240048, p. 213-215) Less intuitive is how periods of economic decline may increase the likelihood of external conflict Economics is accurate and credible—historical calculation provesMorriss, 2008 (Andrew, University of St. Thomas Law Journal, Volume 5, Issue 1 2008 Article 8, "The Necessity of Economics: The Preferential Option for the Poor, Markets, and Environmental Law," http://ir.stthomas.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=114026context=ustlj) Our epistemology is correctWeede, 4- WarmingWarming is happening and increasing now – the US is key to solvePassell ’12 (Peter Passell, a senior fellow at the Milken Institute in Santa Monica, as well as the editor of its quarterly journal on economic policy. "Two world one climate" May 23, 2012. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/05/23/two_worlds_one_climate?page=full26wp_login_redirect=0) Climate change, we are often told, is everyone’s problem. And without a Status quo investment in energy is not sufficientWood, 2013 (Duncan, director of Mexico Institute at Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, researcher at Centro de Derecho Economico Internacional at ITAM, studied at UK in Canada, PhD in Political Studies, Wilson Center, http://wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/wood_energy.pdf) Harbeck Expanding NADBank investments to border infrastructure leads to more environmental and clean tech projectsBalido, 11 – Nelson, president of the Border Trade Alliance ("Bill to expand NADBank projects holds potential to make big impact for border," Border Trade Alliance, http://www.thebta.org/btanews/bill-to-expand-nadbank-projects-holds-potential-to-make-big-impact-for-border.html~~23top) NADB is uniquely key to solve warming- 4 internal links:1. Cooperation- cross border policies are uniquely key to solve the environmentVan Schoik, 04 – Rick, teaches international environmental security, science, and policy at San Diego State University, California ("Biodiversity on the U.S.-Mexican Border," World Watch Institute, http://www.worldwatch.org/node/567) 2. Clean Tech- NADBank investment key to developing clean tech – banks determine industry growthCogan et al 8 — Director of Climate Change Research at RiskMetrics Group (Doug, With climate change senior analyst ¶ Megan Good and research analyst Emily McAteer http://www.ceres.org/resources/reports/corporate-governance-banking-sector, "Corporate Governance ¶ and Climate Change:¶ The Banking Sector", January 2008) 3. TransparencyCogan et al 8 — Director of Climate Change Research at RiskMetrics Group (Doug, With climate change senior analyst ¶ Megan Good and research analyst Emily McAteer http://www.ceres.org/resources/reports/corporate-governance-banking-sector, "Corporate Governance ¶ and Climate Change:¶ The Banking Sector", January 2008) While many banks have made improvements, the actions to date are the tip of 4. Renewables- NADBank solves by investing in solar energy which reduces CO2 and solves the environmentEPA 2012 Specifically in the context of renewables- the NADBank is key to financing and technical assistance.Wood 10 — Duncan Wood, is the Director of the Mexico Institute at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. For 17 years, Dr. Wood was a professor and the director of the International Relations Program at the Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México (ITAM) in Mexico City. He also held the role of researcher at the Centro de Derecho Económico Internacional at ITAM. He is a member of the Mexican National Research System, a member of the editorial board of Foreign Affairs Latinoamerica and has been an editorial advisor to Reforma newspaper. In 2007, he was a non?resident Fulbright Fellow. Between 2007 and 2009, he was technical secretary of the Red Mexicana de Energia, a group of experts in the area of energy policy in Mexico. He has been a Senior Associate with the Simon Chair and the Americas Program at the Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washington D.C. His research focuses on Mexican energy policy, including renewable energy, and North American relations. He studied in the UK and Canada, receiving his PhD in Political Studies from Queen’s University, Canada in 1996 (Duncan Wood, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars Mexico Institute, May 2010, "Environment, Development and Growth: U.S.-Mexico Cooperation in Renewable Energies", http://www.statealliancepartnership.org/resources_files/USMexico_Cooperation_Renewable_Energies.pdf, Accessed 08-22-2013) Funding RE at the border – the role of the NADBANK¶ The North American Renewable energy policy is sustainable and key to solve warmingUCS, May 9th, 2011(Union of Concerned Scientists, a nonprofit science advocacy group based in the United States; "Renewable Energy Likely to Become Dominant Climate Change Solution by 2050, U.N. Study Concludes"; News Center; http://www.ucsusa.org/news/press_release/renewable-energy-likely-climate-solution-0539.html ) If the full range of renewable technologies were to be deployed, levels of heat Warming is the most likely scenario for extinctionDeibel 7 ~Terry L. Professor of IR @ National War College, 2007. "Foreign Affairs Strategy: Logic for American Statecraft", Conclusion: American Foreign Affairs Strategy Today~ Finally, there is one major existential threat to American security (as well as Warming is real and anthropogenic –the most qualified scientists in the world agree, despite some doubtersBrooks, 2012 Portraying eco-damage as ’extinction-level’ is crucial to motivate people to take actionEpstein and Zhao 9 – Lab of Medicine @ Hong Kong SolvencyExpanding the NADBank solves infrastructure development — the plan ensures accountability, private investment, and Mexico says yes.Rodriguez 9 — Raul Rodriguez, serves as the Chairman of the Board of Advisors of the North American Center for Transborder Studies at Arizona State University. He is also the Benson Chair in Banking and Finance and Distinguished Professor at the HEB School of Business and Administration at the University of the Incarnate Word in San Antonio, Texas and the President of RMI, an investment and trade consulting firm in Mexico. He served as CEO and Managing Director of the North American Development Bank (NADBank) until October 2005. Prior to joining the NADBank, he was Executive Director of the Mexican Foreign Trade Bank; the Bank’s Director for Asia; Mexico’s Trade Commissioner in Canada during the NAFTA negotiation; and Secretary of Economic Development for the Mexican border State of Tamaulipas. Mr. Rodriguez participates actively in community affairs at home in San Antonio, Texas, as Chairman of the World Affairs Council; Chairman Elect of The Free Trade Alliance; Mayoral appointee to the Board of Directors of the Port Authority of San Antonio; Chairman Elect and Vice President of the San Antonio - Mexico Friendship Council, among others. He is also a founding member of the Mexican Council on Foreign Relations and a member of the Advisory Council of the Harte Research Institute at Texas A26M University, the North American Forum, the U.S. - Mexico Futures Forum and the Border Trade Advisory Committee of the Texas Transportation Commission. He participated in the Foreign Affairs task force with President Calderon’s transition team in Mexico in October and November 2006 (Raul Rodriguez, The Wilson Center Mexico Institute and El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, June 2009, "The Future of the North American Development Bank", http://wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/RODRIGUEZ20NADBANK.pdf, Accessed 08-21-2013) Many agencies and programs have a bearing on border issues, but the region still NADBank can do it - mission statementNADB, 13 NADB offers direct financing in the form of loans and grants to public and private . As part of this strategy, NADB also promotes a comprehensive, long-term approach to infrastructure planning and project finance, as well as offers technical assistance to build institutional capacity and support the development of sustainable infrastructure. Federal leadership is key – large number of actors without strong federal leadership guarantees a dysfunctional approachLee and Wilson 12 | 3/15/14 |
Shade Grown Coffee 1acTournament: IDCA JV State | Round: 4 | Opponent: GBN DF | Judge: Nick Locke InherencyMexican coffee is traditionally shade grown, but recently they’ve transitioned to sun growth systemsIngebreten 2008 EnvironmentTraditional Mexican coffee is shade grown and shade grown coffee is better for the environmentEarth Easy 2012
Sun coffee production trades off with shade farmingScience Daily, 2008
Industrialized coffee growth is bad for the environmentScience Daily, 6/12/2013
Cooperation and US investment in shade coffee farms sets the stage for further environmental cooperation and better relations in the futureNatural Resource Defense Council, 1996 Scenario 1 - BioD2 Internal links-The first is generic biodiversity:Shade grown farms exhibit greater biodiversity than other coffee farmsRice 1999 Coffee farms play a key role in conserving biodiversityGough, 1996 Biodiversity loss causes extinctionWalsh, 2010
The second is migratory birds:Shade grown coffee plantations are a key habitat for migratory birdsAxelson, No Date Migratory birds are a keystone species and sun growth systems have 97 fewer bird species than shade systems- a huge biodiversity lossRice, 1994 Keystone species are key to biodiversityTews et al 04 (J. Tews, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Plant Scenario 2 – WarmingWarming is happening and increasing now – the US is key to solve AND model for other countriesPassell ’12 (Peter Passell, a senior fellow at the Milken Institute in Santa Monica, as well as the editor of its quarterly journal on economic policy. "Two world one climate" May 23, 2012. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/05/23/two_worlds_one_climate?page=full26wp_login_redirect=0) Climate change, we are often told, is everyone’s problem. And without a Warming is anthropogenic | 3/15/14 |
Shade Grown Coffee 1ac- Fem and PovertyTournament: Midwest | Round: 1 | Opponent: Cedar Rapids Washington KL | Judge: Abby Koshollek | 4/4/14 |
University of Michigan 1acTournament: U Mich | Round: 1 | Opponent: The Devil | Judge: Jesus H Christ Contention 1: Congestion at the border undermines important trade flows between the US and Mexico – infrastructure is key for both economies Commerce between the United States and Mexico is one of the great — yet underappreciated — success stories of the global economy. In 2011 U.S.-Mexico goods and services trade reached the major milestone of one-half trillion dollars with virtually no recognition. The United States is Mexico's top trading partner, and Mexico — which has gained macroeconomic stability and expanded its middle class over the last two decades — is the United States' second largest export market and third largest trading partner.¶ Seventy percent of bilateral commerce crosses the border via trucks, meaning the border region is literally where "the rubber hits the road" for bilateral relations. This also means that not only California and Baja California, but also Michigan and Michoacán, all have a major stake in efficient and secure border management.¶ The quantity of U.S.-Mexico trade is impressive, but its quality makes it unique. The United States and Mexico do not just sell goods to one another, they actually work together to manufacture them. Through production sharing, materials and parts often cross back and forth between factories on each side of the border as a final product is made and assembled. As a result, U.S. imports from Mexico contain, on average, 40 percent U.S. content, and Mexico's imports from the U.S. also have a high level of Mexican content.¶ This system of joint production has two important consequences. First, it means that our economies are profoundly linked. We tend to experience growth and recession together, and productivity gains or losses on one side of the border generally cause a corresponding gain or loss in competitiveness on the other side as well. Second, the fact that goods often cross the border several times as they are being produced creates a multiplier effect for gains and losses in border efficiency. Whereas goods from China only go through customs and inspection once as they enter the U.S. or Mexico, products built by regional manufacturers bear the costs of long and unpredictable border wait times and significant customs requirements each time they cross the U.S.-Mexico border.¶ Corridors in Crisis¶ This trade relationship requires major infrastructure to function effectively. The largest trade corridor, often referred to as the NASCO corridor, links central and eastern Mexico to Texas, the American Midwest, Northeast, and Ontario, utilizing the key Laredo-Nuevo Laredo ports of entry (POEs). Other important trade arteries include the CANAMEX Corridor, which connects western Mexico to the intermountain United States and Canadian province of Alberta, as well as the shorter but high-volume I-5 corridor connecting California to Baja California. As the economies of both the U.S. and Mexico grow, it is likely that this network of freight transportation infrastructure — and the land POEs that serve as nodes in this network — will experience added stress.¶ Unfortunately, the infrastructure and capacity of the ports of entry to process goods and individuals entering the United States has not kept pace with the expansion of bilateral trade or the population growth of the border region. Instead, the need for greater border security following the terrorist attacks of 9/11 led to a thickening of the border, dividing the twin cities that characterize the region and adding costly, long and unpredictable wait times for commercial and personal crossers alike. Congestion acts as a drag on the competitiveness of the region and of the United States and Mexico in their entirety. Solutions are needed that strengthen both border security and efficiency at the same time.¶ The integrated nature of the North American manufacturing sector makes eliminating border congestion an important way to enhance regional competitiveness. The global economic crisis forced manufacturers to look for ways to cut costs. After taking into consideration factors such as rising fuel costs, increasing wages in China and the ability to automate an ever greater portion of the production process, many American companies decided to nearshore factories to Mexico or reshore them to the United States, taking advantage of strong human capital and shorter supply chains. Bilateral trade dropped significantly during the recession but has since rebounded strongly, growing significantly faster than trade with China.¶ But the growth of trade continues to add pressure on the already strained POEs and transportation corridors. Several studies have attempted to quantify the costs of border area congestion to the economies of the United States and Mexico. In what is perhaps a testimony to the fragmented and geographically disperse nature of the border region, most of these studies have focused on particular North-South corridors of traffic and trade rather than taking a comprehensive, border-wide approach. The specific results of the studies (see table on p. 108) are quite varied. Nonetheless, one message comes through quite clearly — long and unpredictable wait times at the POEs are costing the United States and Mexican economies many billions of dollars each year. Plan is key to resolve congestion and boost border infrastructure for both the US and Mexico Policy for a competitive region¶ The border. With an integrated regional manufacturing sector, the same goods cross the U.S.-Mexico border several times as they are being produced. Consequently, the effects of any barriers to trade, tariff or nontariff, are multiplied by the number of border crossings that take place during production. In the NAFTA region, tariffs are not a significant trade barrier, but the importance of having efficient border management and customs procedures is difficult to overstate.¶ After NAFTA took effect and trade barriers fell, bilateral trade skyrocketed, more than tripling by 2000. But after the terrorist attacks of 9/11, a new approach to homeland security led to a “thickening” of the border. Trade and passenger travel ground to a near halt. Although trade has been moving since then, the new security concerns have meant that there was never a return to the status quo. Between 2000 and 2010, legal entries of commercial trucks into the United States at the southern border dropped by 41. Since then, several studies have attempted to estimate the cost of increased border wait times on the regional economy, particularly of border communities. The results are varied, but there is widespread agreement that border-related congestion has had a multibillion-dollar effect on the U.S. and Mexican economies.¶ Seeking to mitigate these costs, the U.S. and Mexican governments developed the 21st Century Border initiative, which is based largely on the idea that neither security nor efficiency has to be sacrificed to improve the other. By expediting the flow of safe and legal border crossers and cargo, officials can focus more of their attention on seeking dangerous people and goods. This is the concept behind the trusted traveler (SENTRI) and trusted shipper (FAST and C-TPAT) programs in place at the Mexican border. Frequent border crossers prove they are low risk by undergoing an extensive background check and interview process. In return, they get to use special lanes to quickly cross the border.¶ There is no silver bullet in border management, but these programs are the closest thing. They make the border safer while lessening the need for building more vehicle lanes at entry ports and increasing the number of border staff. They should be expanded and vigorously promoted. Where they are in place, the United States should work with Mexican officials to ensure that use of the dedicated express lanes significantly reduces waiting times, so that there is an incentive to join the programs.¶ Moderate infrastructure investments are also needed, because although trade has quintupled, relatively few entry ports have seen any major upgrades or expansions. Public/private partnerships are an important mechanism to bring needed funding to the border area, and the Department of Homeland Security should work with Congress to create secure and appropriate mechanisms to encourage their use, if it determines that the current legal environment excessively limits such use. Such partnerships have been successful in some areas, but many border communities and businesses would be willing to commit more resources to facilitate travel and commerce.¶ Transportation networks. Given the importance of U.S.-Mexico trade, the development of regional transportation networks to facilitate trade is too important to leave to chance and ad hoc processes. Local, state, and federal representatives should and do have a voice in the process of guiding the development of border infrastructure and the highway and rail lines that link the interior states of Mexico and the United States. What is lacking is a coherent and robust master planning process to ensure that strategic rather than political interests are the guiding force behind border and transportation infrastructure investments.¶ In 2006, California and Baja California took the initiative to begin developing a regional master plan, an awardwinning project that many believe could be successfully replicated. Other regions of the U.S.-Mexico border have similar plans in various stages of development, but a true master plan spanning the entire border would best facilitate the competitiveness of the United States and Mexico. Projects are partially funded by the Bank, with local, state and federal governments making up most of the remainder of expenses.¶“The bank serves as a catalyst to bring that other investment to the table; we don’t seek to be the sole financier of any infrastructure project,” spokesperson Juan Antonio Flores says. “The local community needs to be invested in it.”¶The core mission of the bank, he says, is to provide environmental infrastructure that will improve communities’ quality of life as well as promote economic growth. Businesses rely on just-in-time inventory management and depend on predictability and speed in their supply chains. Consequently, supply chains are critical to businesses’ underlying value, growth potential, and economic competitiveness. In many cases, before a product is completed, it may have crossed the border numerous times, necessitating a swift crossing process. An ef?cient supply chain is a lifeline for economic cooperation and mutual prosperity, and it contributes to our two countries’ competitive advantage. Unfortunately, supply chains often come to a halt due to border delays, security concerns, and infrastructure constraints. These issues create an environment of uncertainty in the business community, and uncertainty is the enemy of investment, job creation, economic prosperity, and supply chain security. We need to address these issues together in order to grow our trade relationship. Solving these issues will take collaboration, and the solutions are both short and long term. The business community is ?nding that sometimes likely solutions to border congestion are not being tried or, once tried, implemented. Nevertheless, we are encouraged by a recent willingness by leadership at CBP to engage in pilots and test new innovative ways to approach the border. Industry recognizes the challenges that face regulators in reforming policy; however, more needs to be done. A number of tentative conclusions pertinent to Mexican infrastructure policy can be drawn from the foregoing analysis of the relationship between public capital and economic growth in developing countries. These conclusions are based on the following fitted growth expression: ¶ y(90) - y(70) = 1.63 - 0.39 y(70) + 0.20 kp + 0.28 kg + 0.26 eff + 0.18•h - 0.41- debt - 0.29 -gc. ¶ and utilize sample average data as well as data for Mexico. Conse-quently, these policy conclusions are conditional on assumption that the specific process generating Mexican economic growth is closely captured by the average process estimated for the entire set of countries in the sample. A preferable approach would be to utilize separate time series for the Mexican economy — but, unfortunately, this is unfeasible due to limitations of data. ¶ 1)The public capital stock is an important determinant of long run output per capita and of transitional growth rates. Figure 8a shows the relationship between public capital and economic growth for the entire cross country sample. For Mexico, a 1 (or 33 billion pesos) increase in public capital would lead to a 0.28 (or 88 pesos) increase in the long run level of output per capita — and an increase in the average growth rate of just over 0.01 per year. 2) The private capital stock also is an important determinant of long run output per capita and of transitional growth rates. Figure 8b shows the relationship between private capital andf,g economic growth for the entire sample of developing countries. For Mexico, a 1 (or 54 billion pesos) increase in private capital would lead to a 0.20 (or 63 pesos) increase in the long run level of output per capita — and an increase in the average growth rate of around 0.01 per year. 3) For the typical country in the sample, a reallocation of the total capital stock from private to public capital would modestly increase the long run level of output per capita and the rate of economic growth. On average, therefore, the types of capital included in the private capital stock have been over-accumulated relative to the types of capital in-cluded in the public capital stock. For Mexico, a 1 (or 54 billion pesos) reallocation of capital would increase the long run level of per capita output by 0.15 (or 47 pesos)— and the rate of economic growth by just under 0.01 per year. This relatively large impact arises because production in the Mexican economy is private (rather than public) capital intensive — at least relative to the entire set of developing countries in the sample. This does not imply that Mexico could expect to reap significant productivity and output gains by reversing the outcome of recent privatization efforts; rather, it implies that Mexico could experience economic improvement by investing somewhat more in the types of capital which, typically, are included in the public capital stock and somewhat less in the types of capital which are included in the private capital stock. 4) The efficiency of use of the public capital stock is a key factor in explaining long run levels of output per capita and transitional growth. Figure 8c displays the overall relationship between efficiency and economic growth. In Mexico, a 1 increase in public capital efficiency would result in a 0.26 (or 81 pesos) increase in long run output per capita — and an increase in the average growth rate of somewhat more than 0.01 per year. We agree, then, with Hulten (1996) that the economic growth depends on the efficiency with which public capital is utilized just as much as on the size of the public capital stock. 5) The human capital stock also is an important determinant of long run per capita output and transitional growth. Figure 8d depicts the relationship between human capital and economic growth for the broad set of developing countries. For Mexico, a 1 increase in human capital would lead to a 0.18 (or 56 pesos) increase in long run per capita output — and an increase in the average growth rate of somewhat less than 0.01 per year. 6) The level of external public debt is a critical factor determining the long run level of per capita output and the rate of economic growth. Figure 8e shows the relationship between external public debt, mea-sured as a ratio to output, and economic growth. In Mexico, a le (or 7 billion pesos) increase in external public debt would lead to a 0.09 (or 28 pesos) reduction in the long run level of per capita output — and an approximate 0.005 per year reduction in the rate of economic growth. 7) The level of government consumption spending is a key deter-minant of the long run level of output per capita and economic growth. Figure 8f depicts the relationship between government consumption spending, as a ratio to output, and economic growth. In Mexico, a 1 (or 2 billion pesos) increase in government consumption spending would result in a 0.29 (or 91 pesos) decrease in the long run level of per capita output — and a more than 0.01 per year decrease in the rate of economic growth. 8) The means of financing capital, generally, and public capital, specifically, is important to long run per capita output levels and to rates of economic growth. In Mexico, a 1 (or 33 billion pesos) increase in public capital would increase or decrease long run per capita output (and economic growth) — depending on how the public capital is financed. Specifically, if the rise in public capital is financed by a reduction in government consumption, economic growth will be stimu-lated and there will be a rise in long run per capita output equal to 178 pesos (or 0.57) — and a rise in annual growth of some 0.02. But if the rise in public capital is financed by an equal rise in external borrowing, economic growth will be depressed and there will be a drop in long run per capita output equal to 1.1 (or 341 pesos) — and a drop in annual growth of around 0.05 percent. That causes two scenarios for crisis It’s an incredibly strong relationship, for starters, because a lot of people sometimes don’t stop to think that we trade one billion dollars a day of goods in both directions. Second, that Mexico is the United States’ depending on crate loads that we are either third, or second largest trading partner with the United States. China and Mexico have been sort of in second or third, and we are the second largest buyer of U.S. exports on the face of the Earth. Depending what your area of geographic expertise or fondness is, if you think of Latin America, Mexico buys more U.S. exports than all of Latin America and the Caribbean combined. If you’re focused on Europe, Mexico buys more U.S. exports than the combined purchase of the U.K., Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands. If you’re focused on the new, sexy Asia-Pacific, Mexico is buying more U.S. exports than Japan and China combined. We buy more exports than all the four BRIC countries put together, so it’s a very compelling story. 26 states in America today have Mexico as their #1 or #2 export market, and there are ten million U.S. jobs directly related to trade with Mexico in those states. So, it is very vibrant, very important to weigh economic relationship. Mexico’s macroeconomic fundamentals, when the world is hurting still and still facing some of the challenges from the global recession, Mexico growth last year was five percent with 3.1 percent inflation and four percent unemployment. These are very compelling numbers. I think that the macroeconomic fundamentals of Mexico are sound, and this two-way successful relationship that we have developed is critically important for the social well-being and the prosperity of Americans. In a world of increasing economic interconnections, the United States’s stake in the global recovery is greater than ever, IMF Managing Director Christine Lagarde said in a speech to business leaders at the U.S. Chamber of Commerce in Washington, D.C.¶ “What happens elsewhere in the world—be it the success of recovery in Europe or the continued smooth functioning of supply chains in Asia—matters increasingly for the United States,” Lagarde said. “The converse is also true. What happens here matters increasingly for the global economy.”¶ Her remarks, which focused on the interplay between the global economy and the U.S. economy, also highlighted the need to find joint solutions to secure a lasting, balanced and widely shared global recovery.¶ “Job creation is a critical ingredient of any economic recovery, domestic or global,” she emphasized. Businesses have a key role to play, Lagarde said, but at the same time, policymakers have an important responsibility to help “shape the environment in which businesses and citizens can thrive—and jobs can be created.”¶ Changing global picture¶ Lagarde said that global growth remains subdued, while acknowledging that the global economic environment is changing. She emphasized that economies are moving at different speeds and that the fruits of growth are not evenly shared, both in the United States and other countries.¶ The U.S. economy is growing and, after a long time, so is the Euro Area. In Japan, aggressive policy support and the ongoing reform process is helping to spur growth. The emerging market economies, on the other hand, are slowing. “For some, this may be a shift toward more balanced and sustainable growth,” Lagarde told the audience. “For others, it reflects the need to address imbalances that have made them more vulnerable to the recent market turbulence.”¶ Reinforcing the point about global interconnections, Lagarde cited the IMF’s recent “spillover” analysis, which suggests that if the world’s five major economies were to work together to adopt a more rigorous, comprehensive, and compatible set of policies, it could boost global GDP by about 3 percent over the longer run.¶ U.S. recovery gaining strength¶ Lagarde noted that the U.S. economy is gaining strength, calling this good news for America—and good news for the world economy. Although growth is still modest—well under 2 percent—it should accelerate by a full percentage point next year, Lagarde said, adding that the private sector is playing a key role as the engine of growth and job creation.¶ Despite signs of strengthening, the latest jobs data present a mixed picture, with employment remaining well below pre-crisis levels. “The issue of jobs remains paramount,” said Lagarde, noting that jobs and growth is an increasingly important component of the IMF’s policy advice.¶ Lagarde highlighted three key recommendations for U.S. policymakers, drawn from the IMF’s most recent assessment of the U.S. economy.¶ • Fix public finances. Fiscal consolidation could be slower in the short run, but more action is needed to reduce long-run pressures on the budget. Lagarde also warned that political uncertainty over the budget and debt ceiling were not helpful to the recovery. “It is essential to resolve this, and the earlier the better,” she said, “for confidence, for markets, and for the real economy.”¶ • Appropriately calibrate monetary policy. When the time comes, exit from unconventional monetary policy should be gradual, tied to progress in economic recovery and unemployment, and should be clearly communicated and in a dialogue.¶ • Complete financial sector reform. While there has been progress on this front, attention needs to focus on the outstanding “danger zones,” such as derivatives and shadow banking.¶ Global interconnections and role of IMF¶ Lagarde underscored the unique role of the U.S. in the global economy, noting that the economy accounts for 11 percent of global trade and 20 percent of global manufacturing. The country’s global financial ties run deep too, she said. Foreign banks hold about $5.5 trillion of U.S. assets, and U.S. banks hold $3 trillion of foreign assets.¶ While these interconnections have great benefits for the United States, they are not without risks, Lagarde cautioned, referring to the collapse of Lehman Brothers five years ago that ushered in “a harsh new reality” across sectors, countries, and the world. Studies prove our impact Less intuitive is how periods of economic decline may increase the likelihood of external conflict. Political science literature has contributed a moderate degree of attention to the impact of economic decline and the security and defence behaviour of interdependent states. Research in this vein has been considered at systemic, dyadic and national levels. Several notable contributions follow. ¶ First, on the systemic level, Pollins (2008) advances Modelski and Thompson's (1996) work on leadership cycle theory, finding that rhythms in the global economy are associated with the rise and fall of a pre-eminent power and the often bloody transition from one pre-eminent leader to the next. As such, exogenous shocks such as economic crises could usher in a redistribution of relative power (see also Gilpin. 1981) that leads to uncertainty about power balances, increasing the risk of miscalculation (Feaver, 1995). Alternatively, even a relatively certain redistribution of power could lead to a permissive environment for conflict as a rising power may seek to challenge a declining power (Werner. 1999). Separately, Pollins (1996) also shows that global economic cycles combined with parallel leadership cycles impact the likelihood of conflict among major, medium and small powers, although he suggests that the causes and connections between global economic conditions and security conditions remain unknown. ¶ Second, on a dyadic level, Copeland's (1996, 2000) theory of trade expectations suggests that 'future expectation of trade' is a significant variable in understanding economic conditions and security behaviour of states. He argues that interdependent states are likely to gain pacific benefits from trade so long as they have an optimistic view of future trade relations. However, if the expectations of future trade decline, particularly for difficult end page 213 to replace items such as energy resources, the likelihood for conflict increases, as states will be inclined to use force to gain access to those resources. Crises could potentially be the trigger for decreased trade expectations either on its own or because it triggers protectionist moves by interdependent states.4 ¶ Third, others have considered the link between economic decline and external armed conflict at a national level. Blomberg and Hess (2002) find a strong correlation between internal conflict and external conflict, particularly during periods of economic downturn. They write,¶ The linkages between internal and external conflict and prosperity are strong and mutually reinforcing. Economic conflict tends to spawn internal conflict, which in turn returns the favour. Moreover, the presence of a recession tends to amplify the extent to which international and external conflicts self-reinforce each other. (Blomberg and Hess, 2002. p. 89) ¶ Economic decline has also been linked with an increase in the likelihood of terrorism (Blomberg, Hess, and Weerapana, 2004), which has the capacity to spill across borders and lead to external tensions. ¶ Furthermore, crises generally reduce the popularity of a sitting government. “Diversionary theory" suggests that, when facing unpopularity arising from economic decline, sitting governments have increased incentives to fabricate external military conflicts to create a 'rally around the flag' effect. Wang (1996), DeRouen (1995). and Blomberg, Hess, and Thacker (2006) find supporting evidence showing that economic decline and use of force are at least indirectly correlated. Gelpi (1997), Miller (1999), and Kisangani and Pickering (2009) suggest that the tendency towards diversionary tactics are greater for democratic states than autocratic states, due to the fact that democratic leaders are generally more susceptible to being removed from office due to lack of domestic support. DeRouen (2000) has provided evidence showing that periods of weak economic performance in the United States, and thus weak Presidential popularity, are statistically linked to an increase in the use of force. ¶ In summary, recent economic scholarship positively correlates economic integration with an increase in the frequency of economic crises, whereas political science scholarship links economic decline with external conflict at systemic, dyadic and national levels.5 This implied connection between integration, crises and armed conflict has not featured prominently in the economic-security debate and deserves more attention. ¶ This observation is not contradictory to other perspectives that link economic interdependence with a decrease in the likelihood of external conflict, such as those mentioned in the first paragraph of this chapter. end page 214 Those studies tend to focus on dyadic interdependence instead of global interdependence and do not specifically consider the occurrence of and conditions created by economic crises. As such, the view presented here should be considered ancillary to those views. Creating more economic opportunitieswillbe Mexico's greatest weapon in the war on drugs, the country's president-elect said Tuesday. "That, I think, is going to be the best way my government can prevent organized crime," President-elect Enrique Pena Nieto told CNN's Wolf Blitzer. Without jobs and social programs, he said, "millions of my countrymen have no other option than to dedicate themselves sometimes to criminal activity."The wide-ranging interview was recorded just a few hours before the incoming leader met with U.S. President Barack Obama in Washington. In his first meeting with Obama, Pena Nieto said he planned to focus on building trust and boosting economic ties to create jobs. Mexican leader eyes economic ties with U.S. "We've lost presence and competitiveness on the international market. ... There'sstill space, an opportunity, to achieve greater integration as far as productivity, which will allow us to improve the competitive conditions for creating jobs across North America," he said. Pena Nieto, 46, said his security strategy will focus on reducing the drug-related violence that took 60,000 lives during his predecessor's six-year term, though he provided few specifics about how he would stem the violence or what aspects of outgoing President Felipe Caderon's strategy he will change Mexican collapse causes U.S. isolationism which guts Heg Hegemony prevents multiple nuclear conflicts Contention 2 Climate change, we are often told, is everyone's problem. And without a lot of help containing greenhouse gas emissions from rapidly growing emerging market countries (not to mention a host of wannabes), the prospects of avoiding disaster are small to nil. Now you tell us, retort policymakers in the have-less countries: How convenient of you to discover virtue only after two centuries of growth and unfettered carbon emissions. Since you were the ones to get us into this mess, it's your job to get us out. (The United States' what-me-worry posture on climate change does not, of course, make the West's efforts to co-opt the moral high ground any more convincing.) This clash of wills is a bit more nuanced than that, but not much. Almost all the net growth in greenhouse gas emissions for the last two decades -- and more than half the total emissions today -- is coming from the developing world. What's more, most of the cheap opportunities for reducing emissions are to be found in the same countries. But as a matter of equity, it's hard to argue with "you've had your turn, now it's ours." And it's equally hard to see how the stalemate will be resolved before the world goes to hell in a plague of locusts (in some places, literally). The carbon emissions stats by country are startling, and would be even more startling if we had comprehensive numbers for years since 2009. Carbon emissions from OECD countries grew by 8 percent between 1990 and 2009, while emissions from the rest of the world grew by 73 percent (albeit from a smaller base). Breaking down the latter by country: China's emissions were up 207 percent, India's by 173 percent, Indonesia's by 165 percent, Vietnam's 563 percent (!!) and the Middle East's by 171 percent. If you have any doubts about where the emissions containment opportunities lie, consider this: In 2009, non-OECD countries generated four times as much carbon emissions per unit of GDP (at prevailing exchange rates) as OECD countries. Granted, these numbers don't look as bad if GDP is calculated in terms of purchasing power rather than exchange rates. But this is one of the few instances in which GDP comparisons at international exchange rates probably make more sense, because they offer better insight into a future in which consumption patterns across countries are likely to converge; that not-so-distant day when Indians drive cars to work instead of riding bicycles, and virtually everyone who experiences winter in emerging-market countries takes the chill off with central heating. But those focused on social justice rather than efficiency point to yet another set of numbers. While most developing countries waste fossil fuel because their heating, cooking, lighting and motorized transportation depend on older, fuel-guzzling technologies, they are still too poor to consume enough in total to leave much of a carbon footprint. Indeed, emissions per person in non-OECD countries are just 30 percent that of OECD countries. Bolivians, for example, emitted 1,300 kilos of CO2 per person in 2009, compared to 16,900 kilos per person in the United States. Resident of tropical Nigeria emitted a mere 266 kilos each, compared to 9,000 each in tropical Singapore. All told, those living in poor- and middle-income countries do emit more than half of all carbon emissions -- but only because there are so many of them. There's another element here that distinguishes developed from developing countries. If, as expected, climate change brings rising sea levels and more severe weather of every sort -- droughts, floods, hurricanes, tornados -- the rich countries will muddle through with dykes, crops redesigned to survive drought, more air conditioning and the like. It will be expensive, but manageable, unless global warming triggers truly destabilizing changes, like the release of vast quantities of methane gas from now-frozen arctic tundra. But the rich countries' travails may well be poor countries' damnation: the inundation of Pacific islands, catastrophic storm surges on the Bengal plain, the collapse of farm yields in semi-arid parts of Africa, and the spread of insect-vectored disease in the warmer, wetter parts. So, fair or not, poor countries have every reason to make emissions priority-one, right? Maybe, and maybe not. The iconoclastic, Nobel Prize winning economist Tom Schelling has long argued that our interests diverge from theirs. What poor countries need most, he says, is to invest in economic growth, which will give them the income to mitigate the consequences of climate change. Roads must be paved to prevent the isolation of rural areas in heavy rains; sea walls must be built to protect coastal cities; canals must be dug to irrigate drought-prone land; emergency infrastructure must be created to minimize loss of life in weather-related disasters. So poor countries would be foolish to divert scarce capital to emissions containment, which has only a "second-order" impact on their own welfare. Spending a dollar would, in effect, generate two cents' worth of benefits for themselves, and 98 cents' worth for the rest of the world. If all this sounds like a recipe for righteous posturing and diplomatic delay, go to the head of the class. Environmental policymakers and pundits, who once expected to build on the foundation of the Kyoto Treaty to create a truly collective effort to contain emissions, are now thinking smaller. The European Union, for example, is going its own way, investing heavily in emissions reduction in hope that others will be shamed into following its lead. The containment part is more or less working: European emissions declined by 12 percent between 1990 and 2009. But the shame part isn't. China is reducing emissions per unit of GDP, mostly as a consequence of adding productive capacity that is far more energy-efficient than "legacy" capacity. But it is nonetheless widening its lead as emitter number one because the GDP is growing so rapidly. And there is no sign that the other big emerging market economies are planning to mend their emitting ways. Must we then just accept the reality that the developing half of the global economy won't lend a hand in climate change containment? The rich countries might bully where blandishments fail, by imposing tariffs, for example, on imports that are less than green. Might, but probably won't: The United States, in particular, is in no position (geopolitical or financial) to complicate its relationships with either China or India. Besides, it's far from clear that such tariffs would meet the standards of the World Trade Organization. A more plausible option -- one that appeals in terms of both economic efficiency and social justice -- would be to buy their cooperation. Europe already has in place incentives for businesses to invest in emissions-sparing activities in developing countries: For example, paying landowners in Africa to sequester carbon by growing trees on scrubland. By the same token, one could imagine western governments paying their counterparts in the tropics to lock up forest land that would otherwise give way to logging and grazing. But the scale of such initiatives is probably limited by the inherent accounting ambiguities. How would you know, for example, that the forest wouldn't be preserved, anyway? Even more to the point, how would one verify that a government, paid to build natural-gas-fired power plants rather than coal ones, would have gone that way without the incentive? Arguably, the most promising approach to gaining the cooperation of emerging market countries lies in innovation. It wouldn't take much persuasion to get developing countries to adopt technologies that are climate-friendlier if they are also cheaper than emissions-as-usual. One could certainly imagine government-subsidized RandD that cut the cost of solar panels by 90 percent, or transformed the hydrogen-producing artificial leaf into a viable source of fuel. The idea of a global grand bargain in which emerging market countries would join the west in an ambitious, cost-minimizing containment program is dead. The best hope, at least for now, is a pragmatic search for common ground, one that appeals to the angels but relies on self-interest. A decade late and a trillion dollars short, you say? To paraphrase a former secretary of defense, you go to war with the army you've got, not the one you'd like to have. Status quo investment in energy is not sufficient Mar. 12, 2007 — Solar energy has the power to reduce greenhouse gases and provide increased energy efficiency, says a scientist at the U.S. Department of Energy's Argonne National Laboratory, in a report published in the March issue of Physics Today. Finally, there is one major existential threat to American security (as well as prosperity) of a nonviolent nature, which, though far in the future, demands urgent action. It is the threat of global warming to the stability of the climate upon which all earthly life depends. Scientists worldwide have been observing the gathering of this threat for three decades now, and what was once a mere possibility has passed through probability to near certainty. Indeed not one of more than 900 articles on climate change published in refereed scientific journals from 1993 to 2003 doubted that anthropogenic warming is occurring. “In legitimate scientific circles,” writes Elizabeth Kolbert, “it is virtually impossible to find evidence of disagreement over the fun Over the past few years, the U.S. and Mexican governments have expanded beyond the bilateral agenda to work closely together on global issues, from climate change to international trade and the economic crisis. The U.S. government should continue to take advantage of the opportunities this creates for joint problem-solving. Mexico’s active participation in the G-20, which it hosted in 2012, and in the U.N. Framework on Climate Change, which it hosted in 2010, have helped spur this collaboration, and the recent accession of Mexico into the Trans-Pacific Partnership negotiations provides one obvious avenue to continue it. The two countries also coordinate more extensively than ever before on diplomatic issues, ranging from the breakdown of democratic order in Honduras to Iran’s nuclear ambitions. Mexico is likely to play an increasingly active role on global economic and environmental issues, areas where the country has significant experiences, and through cooperative efforts the U.S. can take advantage of Mexico’s role as a bridge between the developed and developing words, and between North America and Latin America. The bilateral agenda will remain critically important –and the increasingly deep integration of the two economies and societies means that efforts on trade, security, and migration will remain vital for the future of both countries. In addition, the maturation of the bilateral relationship means that it may one day resemble that between the United States and Canada, in which global issues can be as important as the strictly bilateral issues. A balanced and wide-randing U.S.-Mexico agenda –one that seeks creative and collaborative approaches on topics ranging from local gangs to global terrorist networks and from regional supply chains to international finance—promises significant mutually beneficial results in the coming years. Each year at least 2,000 endangered loggerhead sea turtles are caught by shark and halibut fishermen off the southern peninsula of Mexico's Baja California. The turtles drown after being accidentally hooked on longline gear or entangled in gillnets; then they're thrown back into the sea, only to wash up dead on shore. Sea turtle deaths reached record levels last year, and alarmingly high stranding rates continued this spring. Scientists and conservationists have urged Mexico to close fishing areas where sea turtle habitat and risky gear overlap -- but Mexico has failed to take action. The United States and Mexico share this loggerhead sea turtle population, which is listed as endangered in both countries. Please, act now using the form below. Tell Mexico you're fed up with its bycatch and that you support U.S. trade sanctions if Mexico doesn't step up and stop the killing. Stop the Bycatch of Loggerhead Sea Turtles I am writing to ask Mexico to act now and halt the ongoing loggerhead sea turtle bycatch off Baja California Sur. As you know, for two decades scientists have documented turtles becoming hooked or entangled in the Gulf of Ulloa'slongline and gillnet fisheries. These fisheries kill an estimated 2,000 loggerheads each year. Last July 483 loggerheads were found stranded on just one stretch of beach -- a 600 percent increase over previous years' averages. And alarmingly high stranding rates have continued this spring. The United States and Mexico share the North Pacific loggerhead sea turtle population, which is listed as endangered in both countries. The United States has closed fishing areas where important sea turtle habitat and risky gear overlap and also requires its fishermen to adopt more sea turtle-friendly gear. Mexico can and must do the same -- or risk the population's extinction.If Mexico does not act, I fully support U.S. trade sanctions until Mexico reduces sea turtle mortality and adopts "comparable" turtle protection measures, as required by internationaltreaty and U.S. law. Sea turtles need protection on both sides of the border, and I urge Mexico to act now to save these ancient and vanishing animals. Destruction of the sea turtle population leads to a domino effect – brink is now. Sea turtles demonstrate the ultimate lesson of ecology – that everything is connected. Sea turtles are part of two vital ecosystems, beaches and marine systems. If sea turtles become extinct, both the marine and beach ecosystems will weaken. And since humans use the ocean as an important source for food and use beaches for many kinds of activities, weakness in these ecosystems would have harmful effects on humans. Though sea turtles have been living and thriving in the world’s oceans for 150 million years, they are now in danger of extinction largely because of changes brought about by humans. If we alter the oceans and beaches enough to wipe out sea turtles, will those changes make it difficult for us to survive? And if we choose to do what’s necessary to save sea turtles, might we save our own future? Beaches and dune systems do not get very many nutrients during the year, so very little vegetation grows on the dunes and no vegetation grows on the beach itself. This is because sand does not hold nutrients very well. Sea turtles use beaches and the lower dunes to nest and lay their eggs. Sea turtles lay around 100 eggs in a nest and lay between 3 and 7 nests during the summer nesting season. Not every nest will hatch, not every egg in a nest will hatch, and not all of the hatchlings in a nest will make it out of the nest. All the unhatched nests, eggs and trapped hatchlings are very good sources of nutrients for the dune vegetation. Even the left-over egg shells from hatched eggs provide nutrients. Dune plants use the nutrients from turtle eggs to grow and become stronger. As the dune vegetation grows stronger and healthier, the health of the entire beach/dune ecosystem becomes better. Healthy vegetation and strong root systems hold the sand in the dunes and protect the beach from erosion. As the number of turtles declines, fewer eggs are laid in the beaches, providing less nutrients. If sea turtles went extinct, dune vegetation would lose a major source of nutrients and would not be healthy or strong enough to maintain the dunes, allowing beaches to wash away. Sea turtles eat jellyfish, preventing the large “blooms” of jellyfish – including stinging jellyfish – that are increasingly wreaking havoc on fisheries, recreation and other maritime activities throughout the oceans. Research has shown that sea turtles often act as keystonespecies. Sea grass beds grazed by green sea turtles are more productive than those that aren’t. Hawksbill turtles eat sponges, preventing them from out-competing slow-growing corals. Both of these grazing activities maintain species diversity and the natural balance of fragile marine ecosystems. If sea turtles go extinct, it will cause declines in all the species whose survival depends on healthy seagrass beds and coral reefs. That means that many marine species that humans harvest would be lost. Sea turtles, and many species that are affected by their presence or absence, are an important attraction for marine tourism, a major source of income for many countries. These are some of the roles that we knowseaturtles play in the essential health of ecosystems. Who knows what other roles we will discover as science reveals more about sea turtles? While humans have the ability to tinker with the “clockwork” of life, we don’t have the ability to know when it’s okay to lose a few of the working parts. If you disagree, try to take apart a clock and just throw away one of the pieces that doesn’t look that important. Put the clock back together and see if it still works. There are five species of sea turtles that nest on Florida’s beaches. The most common is the loggerhead. The green turtle and leatherback are also found frequenting beaches throughout the state. The Kemp’s ridley and hawksbill sea turtles nest in Florida but not very often. All five species are listed as either threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act.Sea turtles are considered to be a keystone species within their ecosystems. The extinction of any one of the many sea turtle species would affect many other organisms within both beach systems and marine systems. Loggerhead sea turtles are considered a keystone species because their eggs actually nourish grass dunes along beaches. They are often referred to as floating reefs because their shells act as a home to as many as 100 different species such as barnacles, small fish, algae and shrimp.The green sea turtle is essential to the health of sea grass beds. Those that are grazed by the green sea turtle are much healthier and balanced than beds that are not. Hawksbill turtles are known for eating sponges which prevents them from overtaking slower growing corals in reef systems. Sea turtles also eat jellyfish, helping to stabilize their population.The necessity of the sea turtle is recognized by The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission’s Fish and Wildlife Research Institute. It coordinates two different sea turtle monitoring programs: the Statewide Nesting Beach Survey and the Index Nesting Beach Survey. Both programs track nesting data in hopes of understanding and promoting the overall health of the sea turtle. Craig, 2003, Associate Professor of Law, Indiana U School Law, McGeorge Law Review, 34 McGeorge L. Rev. 155 Lexis Biodiversity and ecosystem function arguments for conserving marine ecosystems also exist, just as they do for terrestrial ecosystems, but these arguments have thus far rarely been raised in political debates. For example, besides significant tourism values - the most economically valuable ecosystem service coral reefs provide, worldwide - coral reefs protect against storms and dampen other environmental fluctuations, services worth more than ten times the reefs' value for food production. n856 Waste treatment is another significant, non-extractive ecosystem function that intact coral reef ecosystems provide. n857 More generally, "ocean ecosystems play a major role in the global geochemical cycling of all the elements that represent the basic building blocks of living organisms, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur, as well as other less abundant but necessary elements." n858 In a very real and direct sense, therefore, human degradation of marine ecosystems impairs the planet's ability to support life. Maintaining biodiversity is often critical to maintaining the functions of marine ecosystems. Current evidence shows that, in general, an ecosystem's ability to keep functioning in the face of disturbance is strongly dependent on its biodiversity, "indicating that more diverse ecosystems are more stable." n859 Coral reef ecosystems are particularly dependent on their biodiversity. *265 Most ecologists agree that the complexity of interactions and degree of interrelatedness among component species is higher on coral reefs than in any other marine environment. This implies that the ecosystem functioning that produces the most highly valued components is also complex and that many otherwise insignificant species have strong effects on sustaining the rest of the reef system. n860Thus, maintaining and restoring the biodiversity of marine ecosystems is critical to maintaining and restoring the ecosystem services that they provide. Non-use biodiversity values for marine ecosystems have been calculated in the wake of marine disasters, like the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska. n861 Similar calculations could derive preservation values for marine wilderness. However, economic value, or economic value equivalents, should not be "the sole or even primary justification for conservation of ocean ecosystems. Ethical arguments also have considerable force and merit." n862 At the forefront of such arguments should be a recognition of how little we know about the sea - and about the actual effect of human activities on marine ecosystems. The United States has traditionally failed to protect marine ecosystems because it was difficult to detect anthropogenic harm to the oceans, but we now know that such harm is occurring - even though we are not completely sure about causation or about how to fix every problem. Ecosystems like the NWHI coral reef ecosystem should inspire lawmakers and policymakers to admit that most of the time we really do not know what we are doing to the sea and hence should be preserving marine wilderness whenever we can - especially when the United States has within its territory relativelypristine marine ecosystems that may be unique in the world. We may not know much about the sea, but we do know this much: if we kill the ocean we kill ourselves, and we will take most of the biosphere with us. Solvency Many agencies and programs have a bearing on border issues, but the region still lacks an effective and cohesive institutional base, particularly on a bilateral scale. Prevailing political thinking in Washington—and to a certain extent in Mexico City—and the current economic situation are not conducive to creating supranational structures; so while Europe bursts with a cumbersome and bloated institutional life, North America remains anemic by comparison. ¶ Its mere existence and capacity for reform given its small size and overheadmake NADB a valuable asset. Only an accountable and trusted institutional body with a mandate on both sides of the border and subject to bilateral oversightwill allow for further resource transfers and productive interaction. With its track record of tackling difficult sectors and its untapped potential, NADB could truly become the long overdue border bank. It is time for NADB and its mandate to reach beyond the environment to other areas where it can be a vital funding and capacity-building instrument. ¶ Mexico has sought a broader mandate for NADB since 2000. President Felipe Calderón has acknowledged its value and the need to continue expanding its role. He has underscored the “very positive outcomes” of NADB financing; his “commitment to promote” further “reforms of the Bank’s mandate” in order to “eliminate restrictions and improve its operations”; and the need to increase single obligor limits and to expand the mandate to cover “infrastructure projects in general”, and not just environmental projects (speech at the VI National Convention, American Chamber of Commerce; February 27, 2007). ¶ Some progress has been made along Pres. Calderon’s line of thinking. In 2008 the Bank authorized increasing the single-obligor limit, as well as financing for a new type of air quality improvement project: border crossing infrastructure. NADB’s role also fits within President Barack Obama’s agenda in terms of the critical importance of infrastructure development, the need to tend to border issues, and the structuring of more positive and comprehensive cooperative efforts with Mexico. Both federal governments are sponsoring infrastructure programs along the border as part of their economic stimulus initiatives that will render synergies if closely coordinated. ¶ A drawn-out debate has taken place among environmentalists along the border who would like BECC and NADB to continue concentrated on their current mandate and those who believe they should cater to much broader infrastructure needs and an extended jurisdiction. There is a valid argument in making sure these institutions remain focused and clearly there is still much to do environmentally. But there is a wider range of needs along the border that require urgent attention, face decreasing government funding, and are not profitable enough to be financed by commercial banks or the private sector. Addressing these needs would not only have a high impact on the quality of life of the population but would also foster job creation and economic development. In addition, covering more profitable sectors would enhance the Bank’s ability to respond to projects lacking credit capacity.¶ Below are ten of the actions and policy initiatives that have been debated in recent years with regard to achieving an expanded and more effective role for NADB: ¶ A. Expand the mandate to include additional infrastructure sectors: ¶ The Bank requires a more flexible mandate that takes into account a broader set of criteria that do not focus excessively on quantifiable environmental benefits. Currently the Board sets very high environmental benefit thresholds on projects. Factors relating to the broader goals of infrastructure improvement and economic development should be considered in addition to environmental criteria in a balanced way. ¶ Some sectors are more amenable than others for bilateral cooperation. Water—and environmental infrastructure in general—has been a must in view of its strategic importance as a shared and scarce resource on both sides of the border and given its growing complexity. Transportation and logistics, among other areas, is a natural choice: fostering the corridors concept, linking inland port projects and facilities on both sides, helping address the tradeoffs with security measures, promoting customs systems and bridge and road projects that have faced endless delays. Maximizing the use of current infrastructure and addressing mismanagement, coordination and harmonization issues should continue to be part of NADB’s focus. ¶ The Bank should become more fully engaged with the development and expansion of ports of entry and border crossings. In the context of security imperatives, investments aimed at facilitating the construction and improvement of crossings through public-private partnerships might be the most important contribution to the border’s development today. ¶ The need for legislation to authorize further expansion into other infrastructure sectors has been debated. Some suggest it is simply an issue for the governments to resolve. However, given the restrictive interpretations of the charter, if a favorable legislative climate develops its amendment would be advisable if broad mandate expansion were to be considered. ¶ A lingering question is how much of a BECC certification process should be applied to projects in new sectors. Public and stakeholder participation in project development, approval and support has been a fundamental contribution of BECC over the years, but there is a concern—particularly among private sector investors—that it delays the funding process unduly. Expedited NADB lending approval processes will also be critical in order to foster more private sector participation. ¶ As new sectors are addressed, it will be crucial to find even more creative ways to mitigate risks, foster long-term financing in the local currency, and leverage funds from different sources. A key role for the NADB will be to help enhance project conditions and provide guarantees in order to link with private financial markets where affordable long-term funds in a multi-year programming context might be available. | 11/2/13 |
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